MAPPING GENDER-RELATED PROVISIONS IN INDONESIA'S FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
International trade is increasingly recognized as a policy arena that is not gender-neutral. However, systematic mapping of gender mainstreaming across Indonesia’s trade agreement portfolio remains limited. This study maps the presence and design of gender-related provisions in 19 Indonesian international trade agreements concluded up to 2025. It applies a gender-related provisions framework and assesses five agreements containing explicit provisions using the International Trade Centre instrument across ten dimensions. The study combines document-based content analysis, corpus analysis using AntConc, manual verification, and a staged scoring procedure with triangulation to reach consensus scores. The findings indicate that 14 agreements (74%) are gender-blind, while five agreements (26%) contain explicit gender-related provisions. The Indonesia–Canada CEPA (2025) achieves an Advanced Gender Responsiveness score (85%), while the remaining agreements fall into the Evolving (42.5% and 35%) and Limited (32.5% and 20%) categories. The frequency dimension is most commonly met, whereas the dispute settlement dimension is most frequently absent.
Article Details
Issue
Section
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
The authors submitting a manuscript do so on the understanding that if accepted for publication copyright of the article shall be assigned to Intermestic: Journal of International Studies, International Relations Department, Padjadjaran University as the publisher of the journal.
References
Amaral, R. V., & Jaller, L. S. D. (2023). Mainstreaming Gender in Investment Treaties and Its Prevailing Trends. In A. Bahri, D. López, & J. Remy (Eds.), Trade Policy and Gender Equality (pp. 194–212). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009363716.012
Axelrod, R., & Keohane, R. O. (1985). Achieving Cooperation under Anarchy: Strategies and Institutions. World Politics, 38(1), 226–254. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2010357
Bahri, A. (2019). Measuring the Gender-Responsiveness of Free Trade Agreements: Using a Self-Evaluation Maturity Framework. Global Trade and Customs Journal, 14(11/12), 517–527. http://www.cutsgeneva.org/pdf/STUDY%20%20Gender%20and%20Trade.pdf
Bahri, A. (2023). Gender Mainstreaming in Trade Agreements: Best Practice Examples and Challenges in the Asia-Pacific. In A. Bahri, D. Lopez, & J. Remy (Eds.), Trade Policy and Gender Equality (pp. 292–310). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009363716.017
Bahri, A. (2025). The Pentagon Roadmap for Trade and Gender Negotiations. In Trade Agreements and Women (pp. 198–238). Oxford University PressOxford. https://doi.org/10.1093/9780198935759.003.0010
Bahri, A., & Amaral, R. (2024). Gender Equality Provisions in Trade and Investment Agreements: Are They Widening the Negotiation Capacity Gap? World Trade Review, 23(1), 47–71. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474745623000368
Bakardzhieva, D., & Chehab, S. (2025). Promoting Women’s Economic Empowerment Through Economic Diplomacy: The Case of the Arab Gulf’s Free Trade Agreements. Economies, 13(10), 290. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13100290
Bedford, K., & Rai, S. M. (2010). Feminists theorize international political economy. Signs, 36(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1086/652910
Brodsky, A., Lim, J., & Reinsch, W. (2021). Role of Gender in Trade Agreements. In Women and Trade (How Trade Agreements Can Level the Gender Playing Field). Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep53715.7
Bustamante, J. C., & Navia, F. M. (2023). South America’s Leadership in Gender Mainstreaming in Trade Agreements. In A. Bahri, D. Lopez, & J. Ramy (Eds.), Trade Policy and Gender Equality (pp. 267–291). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009363716.016
Chi, M. (2024). Article: Trade-Gender Alignment of International Trade Agreements: Insufficiencies and Improvements. Journal of World Trade, 58(Issue 5), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.54648/TRAD2024040
Chi, M., & Yin, Z. (2024). Trade-Gender Alignment of International Trade Agreements: Insufficiencies and Improvements. Journal of World Trade, 58(5), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.54648/trad2024040
Davies, S. G. (n.d.). Women in politics in Indonesia in the decade post-Beijing n.
der Boghossian, A., Bahri, A., & Laperle-Forget, L. (2025). Gender Equality in Trade Agreements. In The Concept Design of a Twenty-First Century Preferential Trade Agreement (pp. 340–364). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009484640.016
Direktorat Jenderal Perundingan Perdagangan Internasional, K. P. R. (2025). Free Trade Agreement. https://ftacenter.kemendag.go.id/free-trade-agreement
Dommen, C. (2021). Mainstreaming Gender in Trade Policy: Practice, evidence, and ways forward. www.iisd.org
Elias, J., & Roberts, A. (2018). Introduction: Situating Gender Scholarship in IPE. In J. Elias & A. Roberts (Eds.), Handbook on the International Political Economy of Gender. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Elias, Juanita., & Rethel, Lena. (2016). The everyday political economy of Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press.
Faggiano, M. P. (2022). Introduction: Interrogating Textual Material in Today’s Day and Age. In Content Analysis in Social Research (pp. 1–6). BRILL. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004537835_002
Frohmann, A. (2017). Gender Equality and Trade Policy (24/2017). https://www.wti.org/media/filer_public/8b/a8/8ba88d03-1a2b-4311-af6a-629d9997c54c/working_paper_no_24_2017_frohmann.pdf
Goist, M., & Monroe, B. L. (2020). Taking Data Seriously in the Design of Data Science Projects. In L. Curini & R. Franzese (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Research Methods in Political Science and IR (pp. 79–103). Sage Publication.
Grimmer, J., & Stewart, B. M. (2013). Text as data: The promise and pitfalls of automatic content analysis methods for political texts. Political Analysis, 21(3), 267–297. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mps028
Hanifah, S. F., Azhar, H., Aulia, N., & Rivai, F. (2021). Komitmen Indonesia dalam Liberalisasi Jasa Telekomunikasi: GATS, AFAS, dan ASEAN+. Intermestic: Journal of International Studies, 5(2), 312–333. https://doi.org/10.24198/intermestic.v5n2.8
Hannah, E., Roberts, A., & Trommer, S. (2021). Towards a feminist global trade politics. Globalizations, 18(1), 70–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2020.1779966
Hannah, E., Roberts, A., & Trommer, S. (2022). Canada’s “Feminist” Trade Policy? In D. Carment, L. Macdonald, & J. Paltiel (Eds.), Canada and Great Power Competition: Canada Among Nations 2021 (pp. 71–96). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04368-0_4
International Trade Centre. (2020). Mainstreaming Gender in Free Trade Agreements (SIVC-20-31.E).
Karam, F., & Zaki, C. (2024). When Trade Agreements Are Gender-Friendly: Impact on Women Empowerment Using Firm Data. Journal of Economic Integration, 39(4), 875–898. https://doi.org/10.11130/jei.2024036
Kementerian PPN/BAPPENAS. (2020). Pedoman Teknis Penyusunan Rencana Aksi - Edisi Ii Tujuan Pembangunan Berkelanjutan/Sustainable Development Goals (TPB/SDGs). Kedeputian Bidang Kemaritiman dan Sumber Daya Alam, Kementerian Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional/Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional. https://perpustakaan.bappenas.go.id/e-library/file_upload/koleksi/dokumenbappenas/konten/Upload%20Terbaru/Buku-Pedoman-Rencana-Aksi-SDGs%20(1).pdf
Kis-Katos, K., Pieters, J., & Sparrow, R. (2018). Gender, labour markets and trade liberalisation in Indonesia. In A. A. Patunru, M. Pangestu, & M. C. Basri (Eds.), Globalisation, Nationalism and Sovereignty (pp. 157–179). ISEAS Publishing. https://doi.org/doi:10.1355/9789814818230-014
Korinek, J., Moïsé, E., & Tange, J. (2021). Trade and Gender a Framework of Analysis Oecd Trade and Agriculture Directorate Trade and Gender: A Framework of Analysis.
Kuhlmann, K., & Bahri, A. (2023). Gender Mainstreaming in Trade Agreements: “A Potemkin Façade”? Georgetown Law Faculty Publications and Other Works. https://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/2511https://ssrn.com/abstract=4452694
Kusumawardhana, I., & Abbas, R. J. (2018). Indonesia di Persimpangan: Urgensi “Undang-Undang Kesetaraan dan Keadilan Gender” di Indonesia Pasca Deklarasi Bersama Buenos Aires Pada Tahun 2017. Jurnal HAM, 9(2), 153. https://doi.org/10.30641/ham.2018.9.153-174
MacDonald, L. C. (2024). Inclusion of gender and labour standards in preferential trade agreements: evidence from North American and Canada-Chile agreements. Globalizations, 21(8), 1421–1438. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2024.2356354
Mengesha, E. (2008). Rethinking the rules and principles of the international trade regime: Feminist perspectives. Agenda, 22(78), 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/10130950.2008.9674979
Minister for Trade and Tourism, A. (2022, November 13). Australia strengthens trade agreement with ASEAN and New Zealand. https://www.trademinister.gov.au/minister/don-farrell/media-release/australia-strengthens-trade-agreement-asean-and-new-zealand?_gl=1*un42vw*_ga*NTY3MjQxMTc4LjE3NDc4ODI2NTY.*_ga_8Z18QMQG8V*czE3NzAxNzA3MzIkbzgkZzAkdDE3NzAxNzA3MzIkajYwJGwwJGgw
Monteiro, J.-A. (2018). Gender-Related Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements.
Monteiro, J.-A. (2021). The Evolution of Gender-Related Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements: 2021/08 (WTO Working Papers). https://doi.org/10.30875/dd10a280-en
Musfiroh. (2024). Indonesia’s Motivations for Signing of the Indonesia-Chile Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (IC-CEPA). Papua Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations, 4(1).
Nurdin, N. (2024). Analisis Pengarusutamaan Gender di Indonesia, 2000-2023: Pendekatan Institusionalisasi. Jurnal Ilmiah Global Education, 5(2), 948–958. https://doi.org/10.55681/jige.v5i2.2650
Pashakhanlou, A. H. (2017). Fully integrated content analysis in International Relations. International Relations, 31(4), 447–465. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117817723060
Prajuli, W. A., Yustikaningrum, R. V., & Amurwanti, D. N. (2021). How gender socialization is improving women’s representation in Indonesia’s Foreign affairs: breaking the ceiling. Australian Journal of International Affairs, 75(5), 527–545. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357718.2021.1893653
Saraswati, L. A. (2017). The Gender Politics of Human Waste and Human-as-Waste: Indonesian Migrant Workers and Elderly Care in Japan. Gender, Work and Organization, 24(6), 594–609. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12183
Suwandi, I. (2022). Rantai Nilai: Wajah Baru Imperialisme Ekonomi. Penerbit Independen.
True, J. (2015, April 20). Why we need a feminist foreign policy to stop war. OpenDemocracy. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/why-we-need-feminist-foreign-policy-to-stop-war/
UN Women. (2018). Why Gender Equality Matters Across All SDGs. https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2018/SDG-report-Chapter-3-Why-gender-equality-matters-across-all-SDGs-2018-en.pdf
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. (2023). Trade and Entrepreneurship in Indonesia From a Gender and Development Perspective. United Nations. https://doi.org/10.18356/9789213585825
Viju-Miljusevic, C., & Weinar, A. (2024). Gender in the EU-Canada Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement: Third-Generation Trade Agreement as a Gateway to Policy Coordination? Canadian Journal of European and Russian Studies, 17(1), 26–48. https://doi.org/10.22215/cjers.v17i1.4490
Winanti, P. S. (2022). Menakar Kesiapan Indonesia dalam Merespons Perjanjian Perdagangan Internasional. Politika: Jurnal Ilmu Politik, 13(1), 23–40. https://doi.org/10.14710/politika.13.1.2022.23-40
World Bank, & World Trade Organization. (2020). Women and Trade: The Role of Trade in Promoting Gender Equality. World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1016/978-1-4648-1541-6
WTO. (2017). Buenos Aires Declaration on Trade and Women’s Economic Empowerment. https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/womenandtrade_e/buenos_aires_declaration_e.htm